Historical paths or roots
  1. programmed instruction - B.F. Skinner
    • CAI - a teaching machine movement
    • effective but repetitive and could be boring
    • Federal support of Education 1957
    • network of labs and centers - mid 60's
    • curriculum development
    • produced models and designs
    • techniques are primarily for K-6
    • a few great guidelines for adult ed.
  2. The Department of Defense produced a 4 volume set, one for each branch
  3. Human Performance Engineering
    Organization Development
    Employee Growth, Individual

In the area of education Instructional Systems Design (ISD) focuses on the acquisition and application of knowledge.

It is an outgrowth of

  • technical advancements of 'media'
  • educational psychology - learning
  • business and psychology - systems learning

Characteristics

Cycle of development

  1. formulation of objectives
  2. materials development
  3. field testing under condition of intended use.
  4. revisions
  5. recycling

Process

  1. formulation of objectives
    the 'needs analysis'
    compare status quo with the 'ideal situation'
  2. identify resources
  3. identify subject matter expert
  4. what instructional modules exist at this time
  5. what's the budget, content, and timelines
  6. identify the manager of product

    What need are you meeting?

Materials Development

types of materials to be generated
  1. instructional material and procedures for learners
  2. and for the instructor
  3. assessment materials
    • diagnostic for placement
    • diagnostic within a program - how are we doing?
    • end of unit tests - have the objectives been met?

Formulative Evaluation

  1. formulative evaluation
    field test or tryout i.e. use under conditions of indended usage
    with data collected focusing on
    1. effectiveness
    2. attitudes of students and teacher(s)
    3. transactional variables e.g. Was the manual used?
      Could the students use the computer?
      Could the teacher use the computer?

  2. revisions - checking expectations or objectives which were NOT met
  3. continue through the cycle as time, budget, and attitudes permit

Ed Techs are applied researchers.

Emphasis is on process 'models' with revisions!!
Focus is on instruction with no particular develoment model.
Focus the thinking of 'content specialists' - a kind of teamwork.
  1. construct and/or acquire
  2. test
  3. give and receive feedback
  4. REPEAT = goto #1

Objectives

  1. define content
  2. what is important to know or do
  3. they structure intruction
  4. test students
  5. students and instructor 'know' what is expected of them

Sequence - of objectives

The activities are the means
of learning the objective.

Information delivered via instruction is
  1. keyed to the specific objective - no antidotes, nothing extra
  2. clearly stated
    • definitions
    • rules
    • characteristics
    • procedures
    • concepts/principles

  3. examples and nonexamples ((((for concepts)))))
  4. range of content/difficulty
    teach the rule, not just exceptions
    don't confuse the learners
  5. sample problems
    work it through for them
  6. delivered or given objective by objective

Practice

Information Processing Model

yields a flow chart of operations or procedures
steps of performance infer steps of Instructional Design (ID)

Task classifications

5 categories

Learning task analysis

  • start with target objective and work backwards
  • what does the perosn need to do to carry out the terminal objective?
  • at some point make a cut off for entry behaviors

Specify criteria to judge objective and subobjectives

  1. is it an observable learner behavior (performance) - unambiguous
  2. conditions under which performance is assessed - the givens
  3. include criteria or characteristics of acceptable performance whenever learner is asked to demonstrate or construct
    "criteria for acceptable performance is ....
  4. worthwhileness - is it life like?
  5. is it easily understood - as learly as possible if written - proper grammar and syntax
  6. can content be taught within time imits set reasonable for time constraints

subobjectives = enroute and enabling objectives
Are there definitions - verbal info
rules, formulaes - how to apply
are there concepts - simple comparisons - simple procedures or techniques that might be subobjectives.

Entry Skills

  • the knowledge, skills, and attitudes brought by the learner to the situation
  • Is it an entry skill or a subobjective

5 types of learning

  1. psycho motor
  2. attitudes
  3. verbal info
  4. cognitive strategy
  5. intellectual skills
    • discrimination
    • concrete concepts
    • rules - define the critical attributes - give + and - examples - present from easy to hard....
    • problem solving - use of many rules

Concepts

Job Aid

Purposes of Evaluation

accountability check

  1. judge impact or effectiveness (summative)
  2. Front-End Analysis
  3. evaluatiibility assessment - can it be evaluated
  4. formative decisions used to improve or revise
    • the larger the project is in scope the greater the number of 'points of view' that must be checked
    • impact will be more diffuse and less predictable
    • time is just about everything - anticipate needs - Be Proactive!
      Don't feel proud if you're 'running around putting out fires'
      Don't be reactive!
  5. Pragram Monitoring - is program being carried out
  6. Gain Assessment - e. g. 'pre and post test gain'

Model of Evaluation influences the outcome

evaluation measures accountability

  1. evaluate the audience
  2. determine what questions should be addressed
  3. what will be the 'acceptable' behavior or test score for #2
  4. what resources are currently available
  5. what will be the data gathering techniques

- phases of the evaluation describe factors of the planning, process, and product phases. -

for evaluation use

  1. standardized measure
  2. locally developed measure
  3. attitude measurements

Revision

revise until students score at least xy% or time and money run out

5 research or principle based revisions

  1. review task analysis ( check all subskills ) check prerequisite or entry skills
  2. determine if practice has been properly used
    did instructor use designer's intent? -- criteria
    • all tasks and subtasks were practiced
    • range of tasks and range of difficulty
    • practice and posttest are of equal difficulty
    • verify unprompted practice
      inform students of the 'correctness' of their answers
  3. Determine if feedback has been properly used e.g. if example answers were available to the learner, did he/she use the as a check of their work?
  4. make sure the learner knew what was expected of him/her
  5. determine that there is appropriate motivation.

Patterns of Problems

  1. IF performance on posttest is poor - check program data
    IF performance on test is great - check attitudial data with survey or interview
    Concerns
    • check task analysis if practice and test results are poor
    • was bad info given? - rules and definitions might be inadequate
    • add practice and feedback if 1 and 2 above are OK

  2. If test results are poor and practice results are OK -
    • is the test = to the practice?
    • verify unprompted practice
    • add practice and check task analysis - was something left out?

  3. IF test results are OK and practice results are poor -
    don't worry about it.........?

  4. IF test results are OK but yields bad attitude
    add motivational stimuli

CHECKING -
1. Effectiveness
2. Value
3. Instruction delivered as intended? ( teacher's guide, student materials, recordkeeping, etc. ???

the combinations of the above

Systems Theory

Influences

Task Analysis Procedure

front-end analysis

  1. analysis (most critical)
    task list
    settings
    check existing training requirements
    job performance measures
  2. design
    • objectives
    • describe entry behavior
    • pretests
    • sequence and structure

  3. development
    • specifying learning activities
    • instructional plan
    • check exisitng materials and develop if not available

  4. schedule space for follow-up
  5. implement - using instructional management plan in its setting
  6. validate real setting simulation
  7. control - internal evaluation - Does the intended = actual outcomes??
  8. validate external evaluation on the job

    revision - materials, objectives

last step of development is validation with individual testing, group testing and revisions.

student achievement is proof of effectiveness

effectiveness should include norm referenced tests and criterion-reference tests.

Models of Needs Assessments

need assessment = gap = discrepency

The different procedures (models) boil down to Kaufman's "gap".

evaluation is backwards -=- what should be and what is

3 approaches to Needs Assessment

Check societal variables in Needs Assessment - get input from all.

All must agree to the methods (weighings) of Needs Assessment.

simple and logical

Tools used in Needs Assessment (goals and objectives of the program)

  • archival data (test scores)
  • questionaires
  • surveys
  • critical incidence behavior checking target group's behaviors compare with norms
  • interviews
  • standardized test
Evaluation looks at what is (status quo) and compares it to what should have been.

Terminal Objectives are the result!

Other possibilities (sources of objectives)

  • Federal and State Mandates
  • Local and National groups
  • articles, editorials
  • eric
  • pta meetings
  • pressure groups
  • school records
  • nea
  • Federal Labs
  • support groups

a developer relies on specialists (content)

NOT ADDRESSED by design - the learner and instructor interaction, learning characteristics

ID work backwards

i.e. what will the learner do after objectives instuction? Gagne 5 kinds of learning, how to write objectives for each and even attitudes.

he says 'education is to prpare citizens'

2 reasons to teach something

  1. does it prepare the learner for something used in life
  2. does it prepare the learner for something he'll learn later

5 learning outcomes
( which of these is your curriculum directed?)

  1. intellectural skills - learning how
  2. cognitive strategies - govern you're learning how learner organizes creative problem solving - logical systems thinking - hypothesis testing
  3. verbal info or knowledge
  4. motor skills (part skills)
  5. attitudes

plan your objectives around these

generates -> problem solving

varieties of learning

prerequisites (skills, verbal info, cognitive strategies, supportive prerequisites

Gagne - ID is concerned with outcomes of learning

he's always focused on the learner

behavioral objective operationalize instruction

check verbs in objective

verb tells kind of outcome (one of the 5 above)

Events of learning (instruction)
should be present in learning situation

  1. gain attention
  2. stimulate recall of prerequisite learning
  3. presenting the stimulus material
  4. providing learning guidance
  5. eliciting the performance
  6. providing feedback on performance correctness
  7. assessing performance
  8. enhancing retention

OBJ - what the learner does or produces states observable behavior

critique development

? media and scripting - was it justified

? need for 'advance organizers'

check attitude when presenting info

check digit span, how much info is thrown out?

Instruction maps - Knowledge maps

check differences of ways of doing needs assessment in bus & ed (when they're done and why) distinguishes

in industry observe a 'master'

in education we're not observing but the 'best'

both yield heirarchies

glossary is for the learner too

briggis and wager

ISD the advanced organizer of e.t.

e.t. is a macro level of ISD

Media selection process

deliver it via microcomputer

modes of instruction

categories of delivery systems and subgrous

Individual - tutor, peer tutor, ..individual resources (discovery)

group - lecture, discussion, activities (field trips), projects

adapt delivery system to the events of learning

clinical judgement = informed common sense.

media selection make a list of the totally unacceptable and go from there

Is this model effective? If not, is there empirical evidence to support the model?

Instructional strategies

2 levels

  1. macrostrategires = organization of course -> flow of course
    selection of course materials, sequencing
    ausebel - advanced organizers
  2. macrostrategies development and selection of strategies at lesson level

after you have the objective(s) - develop / select the strategies

microlevel - sequence of instruction events leading tho the accomplishment of a single objective.

macrolevel - sequence of instructional events that teaches a group or set

instructional strategies = series of displays presented to the students, and from which the student is to learn

sequence and relationship among displays make up the instructional strategies

line them up in a logical order, use, revise
applicable only to cognitive objectives

----

A general model for effective instructional strategies at the microlevel

  1. intro -->
  2. generality <--> help
  3. instances <--> help
  4. practice <--> feedback

generality - statement of fact, definition, rule, procedure

help == supplemental info, example

instances = examples and nonexamples with help links to generalityes

practice = opportunitiy for learners to judge themselves

not a test

feedback = correct answer and how to determine it

summary = after last segment of instruction, recap

lesson test = profides info to learner and instructor

IF objective is -

  1. FACTual information/instruction
    • explain learner outcome
    • fact statement
    • help
    • practice
    • practice feedback

  2. CONCEPT to be remembered
    • explain learner outcome
    • definition
    • help
    • example
    • help
    • practice
    • practice feedback

  3. CONCEPT to be used (seen and used)
    • explain learner outcome
    • definition
    • help
    • example and nonexamples
    • helps
    • practice
    • practice feedback

Algorithms - a cookbook or flowchart with words

procedure which possesses 2 attributes

By following an algorithm you must get results.

Heuristics - generalized process

3 components

  1. operators - tell user to perform and operation
  2. discriminators - a decision point, the user must discriminate
  3. relate operator and discriminator

uses in education

  • aid to learning
  • allow a person who possesses entry skills to arrive at a desired end.
  • perform a task accurately

yields consistency & they remove excess discriminators

Evaluator's role

An evaluator is a facilitator that feeds information back to development team.